The Kosovo self-defense act of 1999: Policy proposal and strategic context

• Pages: 82-88
• Date: 01 January 2025
• Published date: 01 January 2025
• Author: Arbër Hadri

82

Vol.9 No.1

January, 2025

European Journal of Economics, Law

and Social Sciences

E-ISSN 2520-0429

ISSN 2519-1284

The Kosovo self-defense act of 1999: Policy proposal and strategic context

Dr. Arbër Hadri

Institute of History “Ali Hadri” – Prishtina, Kosovo

DOI: hps://doi.org/10.2478/ejels-2025-0007

Abstract

The Kosovo Self-Defense Act introduced in 1999 by Representative Eliot Engel and Senators

Mitch McConnell and Joseph Lieberman, sought to provide critical military support to the

Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) and the civilian population of Kosovo amid the ongoing

conict with Serbia. This legislative initiative proposed a $25 million security assistance

program aimed at enhancing Kosovo’s self-defense capabilities, enabling the local population

to protect themselves from Serbian aggression.

The central argument of the bill was that the U.S. should equip Kosovo to defend its civilians,

reecting a growing belief in Congress that Kosovo’s independence was inevitable and needed

international support. The bill also suggested military training and assistance as a means to

reduce U.S. military involvement in the region, oering an “exit strategy” by empowering

local defense eorts. This paper analyzes the bill’s signicance using qualitative methods,

examining legislative texts, policy documents, and historical records to assess its impact on

U.S. foreign policy.

It employs a qualitative analysis of legislative texts, policy documents, and historical records

to assess the bill’s signicance in the context of the Kosovo conict.

The analysis reveals that, despite its failure to pass, the bill marked a pivotal moment in U.S.

policy toward Kosovo. It reected a shift from direct intervention to empowering local forces,

underscoring Kosovo’s independence as both a political and security necessity. Ultimately,

the bill helped shape U.S. actions that would contribute to Kosovo’s eventual independence

and regional stabilization.

Keywords: Kosovo, self-defense act, policy proposal, strategic context.

1. Introduction

In 1999, as the conict in Kosovo reached critical levels of violence and displacement,

U.S. policymakers sought new strategies to address the humanitarian crisis and the

ongoing Serbian aggression.

The bill’s introduction came in the wake of failed diplomatic negotiations and

Research Article

© 2025 Arbër Hadri

This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons

Aribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License

(hps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)

1

European Journal of Economics, Law

and Social Sciences

E-ISSN 2520-0429

ISSN 2519-1284

Vol.8 No.3

October, 2024

1

Vol. 9 No.2

September, 2023

Balkan Journal of Interdisciplinary Research

IIPCCL Publishing, Graz-Austria

E-ISSN 2411-9725

ISSN 2410-759X

Research Article

© 2023 Ardita Abazi Imeri

This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons

Aribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License

(hps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)

Deliberating in the Gray Zone: North Macedonia’s Hybrid Regime and

Deliberative Democracy Exercise

Ardita Abazi Imeri

European Policy Institute (EPI) – Skopje

DOI: hps://doi.org/10.2478/bjir-2023-0001

Abstract

Deliberative polling has emerged as a promising method for promoting democratic reform

and citizen engagement in various contexts, however, its potential and limitations in hybrid

regimes, where democratic governance is challenged by a mix of democratic and authoritarian

features, remain relatively unexplored. This paper focuses on the case of North Macedonia,

as a country that has undergone signicant political and societal transformation especially in

the recent years. Despite eorts to promote democratic reforms, the country continues to face

challenges in terms of ensuring democratic governance and citizen participation. In a hybrid

regime, like North Macedonia’s, political leaders might not be inclined to value citizens’

input, and the media environment might not be free from inuence, which limits access to

varied and reliable sources of information. Civil society organizations may also encounter

limitations on their operations, and institutional assistance may be insucient. Additionally,

the population’s diversity could make it dicult to reach and build trust with citizens. In

this context, deliberative polling represents an opportunity to engage citizens in meaningful

political dialogue and institutional reform. This paper examines the potential of deliberative

polling as a tool for promoting governance in North Macedonia and highlights the challenges

and limitations faced in this process.

Keywords: deliberative poll, hybrid regime, authoritarian, democracy.

1. Introduction

Democracy around the world is in crisis. In general, the state of democracy world-

wide indicates a lack of progress (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2022). Looking at the

global picture, 2022 fell short of expectations for democracy, as it was anticipated that

the lifting of pandemic-related restrictions might result in an improvement in the

overall score. Both the Freedom House Report 2022 and the Economist Intelligence

Unit’s Democracy Index (EIU) 2022 indicate that the state of democracy around the

world is facing signicant challenges and setbacks.

Research Article

© 2024 Etleva Dobjani and Saimir Kristo

This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons

Aribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License

(hps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)

Unveiling the Subterranean Heritage: A Case Study of the Underground City

of Kukës, Albania

Assoc. Prof. PhD. Etleva Dobjani

Head of the Department of Architecture and Design, Barleti University, Tirana, Albania

Assoc. Prof. PhD. Saimir Kristo

Vice Dean in the Faculty of Applied Sciences and Creative Industries, Barleti University,

Tirana, Albania

DOI: hps://doi.org/10.2478/ejels-2024-0014

Abstract

This paper investigates the viability of conserving and repurposing Kukës’ underground city,

which was built as a system of civil defence tunnels during the communist era in Albania.

Beneath contemporary Kukës, the underground complex, which houses administrative oces

and hospitals, is an important but underutilized historical and architectural asset. This study

assesses the architectural elements, historical value, and present state of the tunnels using

an extensive methodology that includes expert interviews, public consultations, on-site

inspections, and archival research. Results highlight the site’s dual signicance as a historical

landmark and a possible center for innovation and tourism.

The research oers strategic proposals for reviving the tunnels to strengthen the local economy,

maintain cultural identity, and increase tourist araction, drawing on foreign case studies. By

promoting the inclusion of Kukës’ underground city in larger regional development projects

and considering both community goals and pragmatic concerns, the article adds to the current

conversations in urban planning and cultural preservation.

Sustaining and repurposing Kukës’ underground city has various benets, including

enhanced cultural tourism and economic resurgence that encourage sustainable growth, the

paper points out. Still, challenges like deteriorating infrastructure, security concerns, and

accessibility issues must be overcome. Urban planners and politicians can apply the research’s

practical implications by using it to develop a model for cultural preservation that aligns with

modern social and economic goals.

A sense of shared identity and legacy among the local community’s members is fostered by

the initiative, which has signicant social implications as well. The study has some drawbacks,

including the need for signicant funding and the potential for opposition from groups who

do not recognize the advantages of these kinds of initiatives. To summarise, this research

highlights the potential of adaptive reuse to bolster the sustainability and resilience of urban