Amphetamine, MDMA and methamphetamine

• Author: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EU body or agency), Europol (EU body or agency)
• Pages: 150-171

150

EU DRUG MARKETS REPORT

Key points

e EU market for amphetamine,

MDMAand methamphetamine

 e stimulant drug market continues to evolve rapidly,

with amphetamine, MDMA and methamphetamine vying

for market share alongside cocaine and anumber of new

psychoactive substances.

 Amphetamine continues to be more commonly used

than methamphetamine in most, but not all, EU countries,

but there are signs that methamphetamine production and

use are spreading. Regional dierences exist in the use

of amphetamine and methamphetamine, which is more

common in northern and central Europe, whereas the use

of MDMA appears to be more generally diused.

 All three drugs are produced in Europe. e production

of MDMA and amphetamine is concentrated in the

Netherlands, and to alesser extent Belgium, under the

control of Dutch OCGs. Methamphetamine production

mostly occurs in central Europe, particularly in and around

Czechia. It appears that some Vietnamese OCGs involved

in methamphetamine production in Czechia may have

relocated some of their operations to the Netherlands.

 Synthetic drug production in the EU, close to consumers,

can be highly protable. e value of the European

retail market for amphetamine and methamphetamine

is estimated to be at least EUR1billion and for MDMA

about EUR0.5billion. ese estimates imply that between

51and 81 tonnes of amphetamine and methamphetamine

and between 50 million and 70 million MDMA tablets

will be produced for the EU market each year. Signicant

quantities are also produced for export, although exactly

how much is dicult to quantify.

Developments in production and

tracking

 Innovation is increasing production capacity and

creates new challenges. Developments include the use

of low-cost, non-scheduled chemicals, mainly sourced

from China, that can be converted into drug precursors;

custom-made and industrial-scale equipment allowing

larger production runs; and methods borrowed from the

pharmaceutical industry, such as automating production

processes. Insome countries OCGs have also established

chemical companies to facilitate the supply of materials.

Amongother factors, this has led to amphetamine and

MDMA being readily produced cheaply in large quantities

and may have contributed to the rise in the amount of

MDMA in ecstasy tablets seen since 2009, which increases

the risk to consumers.

 e dumping of waste products from production results

in environmental damage, health risks and high clean-up

costs. Avariety of methods are used to dispose of the

tonnes of chemical waste created during synthetic drug

production. is creates health and safety hazards, has

negative impacts on the environment and necessitates

costly clean-up procedures. e use of novel chemicals for

producing precursors has exacerbated this issue.

 Changes in OCG practices and greater interaction

between groups involved in other areas of the drug market

are observable. ese include outlaw motorcycle gangs

now becoming involved in the production of synthetic

drugs as well as their distribution. In addition, Dutch OCGs

appear to be working with criminals of Turkish origin,

resulting in two-way tracking: MDMA and other drugs are

sent from the Netherlands to Turkey in exchange for heroin

and morphine.

CHAPTER 6

Amphetamine, MDMA and

methamphetamine

151

CHAPTER 6

I

Amphetamine, MDMA and methamphetamine

 Heightened awareness at border entry points to the

main drug-producing countries has led importers to divert

shipments of precursors and alternative chemicals to other

EU Member States, from where they are tracked by land

once inside the Schengen Area.

 MDMA is exported to consumer markets globally, often

exploiting parcel delivery services and online darknet

marketplaces. Darknet markets facilitate access to

EU-produced MDMA tablets by mid-level suppliers and

distributors. MDMA may be purchased in batches of

multiples of 1000 tablets, which can then be repackaged,

sold online and dispatched through post and parcel

services or through traditional distribution networks.

 Europe also plays arole in the global market for

amphetamine and methamphetamine. Some of the

amphetamine produced in the EU is tracked to the Middle

East to be sold as captagon tablets. e dismantlement,

inthe Netherlands and Belgium in 2019, of three large

crystal methamphetamine production facilities where

Mexican nationals were involved suggests that Europe

may also be emerging as aglobal supplier of this drug. In

addition, methamphetamine produced in Africa and the

Middle East, and more recently Mexico, transits through

Europe, usually with anal destination in Asia or Oceania.

 Currently demand for amphetamine, methamphetamine

and MDMA in the EU appears largely to be met by

production in EU Member States. is means that most

distribution occurs locally within the EU, limiting the

opportunities for interdiction. Acomparatively small

number of groups are currently involved in distributing

methamphetamine, in particular Vietnamese OCGs and

outlaw motorcycle gangs.

Implications for action to address

current threats and increase

preparedness

To respond to the current and potential future threats

posed by the synthetic drug market in Europe, the following

actions are needed.

■Prioritise development of acomprehensive set of

measures to respond to the growing threat posed by

the emergence of alternative substances that can

be easily converted to drug precursors. ese would

include:

■

strengthening regulatory approaches at both EU and

international levels;

■

establishment of aEuropean early warning system

and database for identifying and proling drug

precursors, alternative chemicals and other relevant

substances;

■

engagement with China and other source countries;

■

continued engagement with industry within the EU.

■Invest to improve the proling and monitoring of the

methods used in the production of synthetic drugs in

Europe.

■Highlight and develop strategies to address the

environmental impacts, hazards to health and costs to

the public purse associated with the chemical waste

generated by synthetic drug production.

■Give greater recognition to the implications of the EU’s

role as aglobal producer and supplier of synthetic

drugs, and the need to do more to restrict drug ows

leaving, or transiting through, the EU.

■Strengthen cooperation with Turkey to improve the

understanding of synthetic drugs’ availability and ows

from and to the EU, for both operational and strategic

purposes.

■Work with countries in the Middle East to better

monitor amphetamine (captagon) production and

supply. ere is aneed to gain information from the

forensic analysis of seizures, locate source countries

and identify trends in patterns of use in the consumer

markets for this drug.

■Improve current knowledge and awareness about the

health risks associated with synthetic drug production

and dismantling of production sites, to inform the

development of health and safety guidance for those at

risk of occupational exposure.

■Assess the threats associated with Mexican OCGs that

appear to be involved in the supply and production

of methamphetamine in Europe, in order to develop

responses.

■Improve the assessment of the size, nature and impact

of the ketamine and GHB/GBL market in the EU.