Corruption, can it be measured actually? Causes, indicators and measurement methodology

• Author: Edlira Jorgaqi
• Position: Member of the Central Election Commission of Albania
• Pages: 19-35

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ISSN 2410-759X

Acces online at www.iipccl.org

Balkan Journal of Interdisciplinary Research

IIPCCL Publishing, Tirana-Albania Vol. 1 No. 3

January 2016

Corruption, can it be measured actually?

Causes, indicators and measurement methodology

Edlira Jorgaqi

Member of the Central Election Commission of Albania

Abstract

Ethics, integrity and fight against corruption - these are issues which are significantly

included in the political and administrative agenda of our country. Corruption is a multi-

dimensional phenomenon. It emerges for different causes, varying from one place to

another, from one geographical and cultural reality to another, and also from one sector

to another. Such diversity must be considered when trying to measure corruption. An

efficient system of collection, analysis and distribution of information about crime and

criminal justice is a precondition for crime prevention. Different sources may provide

different information, thus creating confusion among the users. Yet, another unsolved

problem is the “invisible corruption”, because only what is visible can be measured.

Keywords: Corruption, Measurements, methodology.

Defining corruption

There is no unique, comprehensive and internationally accepted definition of

corruption. Any attempt in this regard is inevitably faced with problems of cultural,

methodological, disciplinary and normative nature. In front of this objective

difficulty, defining corruption as an activity which is contrary to law, is mostly

preferred. Such approach, which is a typical approach of criminal law, is certainly

functional.

In synthetic and general terms, corruption may be perceived as abuse by a subject

of entrusted power, for personal gain.

Essential elements of the definition are:

· Entrusted power,

· Subject to which power has been entrusted,

· Abuse of power by the subject,

· Personal gain deriving from the abuse.

The link among these four essential elements of the concept of corruption is

indispensable. International institutions define corruption phenomenon differently.

According to Transparency International, corruption consists in the abuse of

entrusted power for private purposes.

Such definition highlights three components of corruption:

- abuse of power,

- private purposes, which means that it is not only the subject abusing power, but

also the family members or friends that take advantage;

- entrusted power, which means that it may derive from both the public and the

private sector.

Transparency International sometimes makes use of this definition: “abuse of power

ISSN 2410-759X

Acces online at www.iipccl.org

Balkan Journal of Interdisciplinary Research

IIPCCL Publishing, Tirana-Albania Vol. 1 No. 3

January 2016

20

for personal enrichment purposes”. Such organisation classified corruption into

grand corruption, petty corruption and political corruption, depending on the

amounts of money lost and the sector where it occurs. Grand corruption consists

of acts committed at a high level of government. Petty corruption refers to everyday

abuse of entrusted power by low- and mid-level public officials in their interactions

with ordinary citizens, who often are trying to access basic goods or services in

places like hospitals, schools, police departments and other agencies. Political

corruption is a manipulation of policies, institutions and rules of procedure in the

allocation of resources and financing by political decision makers, who abuse their

position to sustain their power, status and wealth.

The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe defines corruption as “public

power use and abuse for private gain” (Parliamentary Assembly, 2015). According

to European Commission “corruption is any abuse of process or any irregularity

committed in the context of a decision-making process in exchange for an undue

advantage”. The definition of the Council of Europe Group of States Against

Corruption is somehow different: “corruption is illicit remuneration or other

conduct, of persons in public or private sector who violate the law during

performance of their tasks, be them state employees, private sector employees or

independent agents, and who intend to gain unfair advantage of whatsoever nature,

for themselves or other persons”. According to this Group it is difficult to determine

accurately the legal boundaries of this phenomenon, but it is clear that its nature

shows that it concerns abuse of power or unfairness in decision-making.

World Bank supports the definition of corruption: “abuse of public office for personal

gain”. UNESCO International Institute for Education Planning has studies

corruption especially in the field of education. In this field, it defines corruption as:

“the systematic use of public office for private benefits, whose impact is significant

on the availability and quality of educational goods and services, and, has a

consequence on access, quality or equity in education”.

What are the general causes of the corruption phenomenon?

- Bad governance: vague laws, improper justice system, lack of transparency and

accountability, lack of freedom of the press;

- Lack of corruption prevention policy and assessment of importance of such cases,

including professional ethics, conflict of interest, refusal of gifts and other advantages;

- Weak institutions: the high officials are not held liable; officials are inclined to

receive payments, etc.;

- Low salaries: the public administration in many countries is paid relatively low

salary especially the doctors, police officers, customs officers who are the victims of

the mind-set that they do not need to be paid because they gain when performing

their functions;

- Low administrative culture.

Corruption international indicators

International indicators, at international level, for measuring corruption are

exclusively based on perception. They are: